Arabic script

The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and many other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it, and the third-most by number of users. Arabic has two forms, Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, the two forms are basically the same in how they are written, though Classical Arabic has special modifier symbols that signify proper pronunciation.

Usage
Arabic has 28 letters, though some additional letters are used in Arabic when writing foreign words. Additional letters are used when writing other languages. The script is written from right to left in a cursive style. Letters are always joined in both hand-written and printed Arabic. There are no capital letters. The Arabic script is notable for the fact that most letters change shape depending on where in the word the appear.

In some languages the Arabic script is used as an alphabet, however it is generally an impure abjad. When used to write Arabic some of the consonants in the script double as long vowels. Alif can represent the /a:/ sound in addition to many other sounds. Waw represents the /w/ and /u:/ sounds. And ya represents the /j/ and /i:/ sounds. Short vowels are usually unwritten, however there are many optional diacritics to signify pronunciation.


 * 1) Letter form has regional variation.
 * 2) The hamza is generally not considered an separate letter. It sometimes appears on the line as if it were a letter, however no other letters connect to it. More commonly though, it appears as a small diacritic above alif, waw, or ya.

Diacritics
Though long vowels are written, the short vowels of Arabic, and other phonetic information, are usually omitted in everyday use. The Arabic script has many optional diacritics, known as tashkil (تَشْكِيل), which are placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable. The tashkil used to indicate short vowels are known as harakat (حَرَكَات), though there is some ambiguity as to which tashkil are harakat. Texts that use tashkil are known as 'vocalized texts'.

The main purpose of tashkil is to show the correct pronunciation and prevent ambiguity. They are commonly used in texts that demand strict adherence to exact pronunciation, such as the Quran and poetry. They are also used in children's literature, education (particular grammar classes, since the vowels are crucial to Arabic grammar), and in professional work to avoid ambiguity. Harakat can also be used on individual words in ordinary texts when there is ambiguity that cannot be resolved from context alone. In art and calligraphy, tashkil might be used simply because they are considered aesthetically pleasing.

Additional letters
Sometimes extra letters are used in Arabic to represent foreign sounds in loanwords. Other languages may use these letters, and other letters to represent other sounds as well.

Other symbols
Numbers in Arabic can be written is several ways. In the western Arab world western Arabic numerals are used, which are identical to those used in the Latin alphabet. In the eastern Arab world eastern Arabic numerals are used. Regardless, numerals in Arabic are written left to right, the same as the Latin alphabet, despite the rest of the script being written right to left.

Punctuation marks are basically identical in appearance and use to those used in Latin alphabet. Though, the question mark appears mirrored to be read from right to left ⟨؟⟩. The comma ⟨،⟩ and semicolon ⟨؛⟩ appear mirrored and flipped vertically.

Early history
The Arabic script descended from the Nabataean script. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late 4th-century. In its early form there were several examples of letters that made multiple sounds because those sounds were not distinguished in Nabataean, so early Arabic only had 15 letter-shapes to represent 29 sounds. Vowels were distinguished first, and later a system of distinguishing consonants developed. Originally, a system of red dots was used to indicate vowels and hamzas. Later on consonants were distinguished using small dots, known as iʻjām (إِعْجَام) (for example, the dots distinguishing sad (ص) and dad (ض). Originally iʻjām were considered optional but later they became considered a part of the letter and mandatory in all writing. However, the red dots and iʻjām were easy to confuse, so the modern system was developed by al-Farahidi and was finalized around 786. New letters were also introduced and were placed in the alphabet after the letter they were an alternative of.

Spread
The Arabic script was spread along with Islam. Since the Quran is written in Arabic and prayers are recited in Arabic it is common converts to learn to speak and read Arabic, which helped the spread of the script. The script initially spread during the Early Muslim conquests to much of north Africa and western Asia. The script also spread along Arab trade routes. Significant conversions starting around the 8th century lead Arabization in central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Decline of usage
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and increase in European influence, many non-Arab Islamic areas that previously used the Arabic script began using the Cyrillic or Latin alphabet. In many cases, the use of Arabic script has become restricted to classical texts and traditional purposes, while in others, the Arabic script is used alongside the Latin alphabet.